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Optical spectroscopy at the ultimate limit of a single molecule has grown over the past dozen years into a powerful technique for exploring the individual nanoscale behavior of molecules in complex local environments. Observing a single molecule removes the usual ensemble average, allowing the exploration of hidden heterogeneity in complex condensed phases as well as direct observation of dynamical state changes arising from photophysics and photochemistry, without synchronization. This article reviews the experimental techniques of single-molecule fluorescence spectroscopy and microscopy with emphasis on studies at room temperature where the same single molecule is studied for an extended period. Key to successful single-molecule detection is the need to optimize signal-to-noise ratio, and the physical parameters affecting both signal and noise are described in detail. Four successful microscopic …